# independent and identically distributed assumption (i.i.d. assumption)

*Entry of the [Dictionary of Applied Machine Learning](https://dictionaryofml.org) (course edition), by Alexander Jung, Aalto University. CC BY 4.0. Updated 2026-10-28. [HTML](https://dictionaryofml.org/terms/iidasspt.html) · [typeset PDF](https://dictionaryofml.org/terms/iidasspt.pdf) · [LaTeX](https://dictionaryofml.org/terms/iidasspt.tex) · [Python demo](https://dictionaryofml.org/terms/iidasspt.py) · [notebook](https://dictionaryofml.org/terms/iidasspt.ipynb)*

Math is LaTeX with the book's macros expanded, so no notation package is needed to read it.

## Abstract

The independent and identically distributed assumption (i.i.d. assumption) is the probabilistic model that represents the generation of a sequence of data points by independent and identically distributed RVs. It consists of two separate requirements, joint independence and one common probability distribution. The assumption makes the average loss on a training set an unbiased estimate of the risk, which is what justifies empirical risk minimization and the use of a validation set to estimate the loss outside the training set. Each requirement can be tested. Independence can be tested through its consequence for predictability of individual data points. A common probability distribution can be tested by the largest gap between the empirical cdfs of two blocks of the sequence. The assumption fails under distribution shift, when the data points met after training follow a different probability distribution.

## Definition

A weather station at Krems an der Donau recorded the maximum air temperature of each day throughout 2024. Fig. 1 shows four of those months, each a dataset with one number per day. The numbers of one such month can be viewed as realizations of independent and identically distributed RVs. That interpretation is the i.i.d. assumption, and the figure shows evidence against it. The four months have different averages. Inside every month a warm day is often followed by a warm one, so which day is read decides what the neighboring values are.

![Figure 1 of the entry iidasspt](https://dictionaryofml.org/terms/fig/iidasspt-fig1.svg)

*Figure 1: The maximum air temperature of each day at Krems an der Donau, for four months of 2024. Each month is read as one dataset. The averages differ from month to month, $5.95$ degrees in January against $30.09$ in August, and within each month a warm day tends to follow a warm one. Data generated by pythondemos/iidasspt.py*

The i.i.d. assumption is the probabilistic model representing the generation of the data points ${\mathbf z}^{(1)}, \ldots,
{\mathbf z}^{(m)} \in \mathcal{Z}$ of a dataset by independent and identically distributed RVs with one unknown probability distribution $p({\mathbf z})$ (Shalev-Shwartz and Ben-David, 2014, Sect. 2.3.1). For any events $\mathcal{A}_{1}, \ldots, \mathcal{A}_{m} \subseteq
\mathcal{Z}$,

\begin{equation}
\tag{1}
\mathbb{P}\left( {\mathbf z}^{(1)} \in \mathcal{A}_{1}, \ldots,
{\mathbf z}^{(m)} \in \mathcal{A}_{m}\right)
= \prod_{r=1}^{m}
\mathbb{P}\left( {\mathbf z}^{(r)} \in \mathcal{A}_{r}\right)
\text{,}
\end{equation}

and each factor is computed from the same $p({\mathbf z})$. The assumption therefore consists of two separate requirements: the data points follow one common probability distribution, and they are jointly independent. Joint independence is stronger than independence of every pair, since the product rule Eq. (1) is required for all $m$ events at once: there are collections in which every pair factorizes and the whole collection does not (Murphy, 2012, Exercise 2.7).

The assumption names a quantity to aim at beyond the training set: the risk of a hypothesis, its expected loss $\mathbb{E} \big\{ L\left({\mathbf z},h \right) \big\}$ on a data point drawn from $p({\mathbf z})$. Under the i.i.d. assumption the average loss on a training set is an unbiased estimate of it (Shalev-Shwartz and Ben-David, 2014, Sect. 4.2). Let $\sigma^{2}$ be the variance of the loss of a fixed hypothesis on one data point. The average loss over $m$ data points then has variance $\sigma^{2}/m$, and for losses confined to an interval $[a,b]$, Hoeffding's inequality bounds the probability that it deviates from the risk by more than $\epsilon$ by $2 \exp \big( -2 m \epsilon^{2}/(b-a)^{2} \big)$ (Hoeffding, 1963; Shalev-Shwartz and Ben-David, 2014, Lemma B.6). This is the argument for empirical risk minimization and for using a validation set to estimate the loss outside the training set (Shalev-Shwartz and Ben-David, 2014, Th. 11.1).

The assumption can fail: a distribution shift violates the identically distributed requirement across datasets, since the probability distribution that generated the training set differs from the one that generates the data points encountered after deployment (Quiñonero-Candela et al., 2009). Verifying that a given dataset can be approximated by realizations of i.i.d. RVs has two parts, each a form of hypothesis testing. A test first examines whether the data points are realizations of independent RVs. A second test then examines whether those RVs share one probability distribution.

One basic independence test uses the consequence that statistical independence has for the predictability of a data point from a few preceding ones. If ${\mathbf z}^{(1)}, \ldots, {\mathbf z}^{(d)},
{\mathbf z}^{(d+1)}$ are realizations of independent and identically distributed RVs, then no hypothesis predicts ${\mathbf z}^{(d+1)}$ from ${\mathbf z}^{(1)}, \ldots, {\mathbf z}^{(d)}$.

The hypothesis is learned from data points constructed out of the sequence: each is an overlapping block of $d+1$ consecutive values, whose first $d$ values are its features and whose last value is its label. Learning by empirical risk minimization on part of the blocks and measuring the average loss on the rest gives the quantity to compare. If the values are realizations of independent RVs, that loss is similar to the loss of a hypothesis that uses no features at all, namely the best constant. Any hypothesis space serves: a linear model with $d = 1$ under the squared error loss recovers the square of the autocorrelation at lag one, and a decision tree registers dependence that no Pearson correlation coefficient can.

Fig. 2 runs this on the Krems record. A decision tree of depth three with the preceding days as features reaches an average loss of $11.8$ on days it was not fitted on, against the $84.6$ of the best constant, so the preceding days carry information about the next one and the data points are not realizations of independent RVs.

![Figure 2 of the entry iidasspt](https://dictionaryofml.org/terms/fig/iidasspt-fig2.svg)

*Figure 2: (a) Sixty days of the Krems an der Donau record and the predictions of a decision tree of depth three reading the $d$ preceding days. (b) The average loss of that decision tree on days it was not fitted on, against $d$, with the loss of the best constant as the dotted line. Using the preceding days cuts the loss to about one eighth of it. Data generated by pythondemos/iidasspt.py*

The check detects only the dependence that its hypothesis space and its label can express. A sequence can be dependent and still have a flat conditional expectation, and then no hypothesis space helps. For $x^{(r)} = \varepsilon^{(r)}
\varepsilon^{(r-1)}$ with independent and identically distributed standard Gaussian RVs $\varepsilon$, decision trees of depth one through four all predict the next value worse than the best constant does, and monotonically worse the deeper the tree. Enlarging the hypothesis space lowers no loss when there is nothing in the conditional expectation to find, and worsens generalization: the larger hypothesis space only lowers the loss on the days the hypothesis was trained on. Predicting the squared value instead brings the loss below the constant's. Enlarging the hypothesis space therefore detects dependence only where it appears in the conditional expectation; changing what the hypothesis is asked to predict detects it elsewhere. Neither alone turns the check into a test of independence (see autocorrelation).

The identically distributed requirement needs to be verified in turn. Cut the dataset into blocks of equal size and compare the empirical distributions of two blocks by the largest vertical gap between their cdfs. That gap is the two-sample Kolmogorov–Smirnov statistic (Gretton et al., 2012, Sect. 7.2.1). It is at most one, and it equals one when the two blocks share no value.

The Krems record fails this requirement too, and by a wide margin. Fig. 3 applies the block comparison over periods of growing length. Within January the largest gap between the two $15$-day blocks is $0.33$; over January to June and over the whole year it is $1$, so two blocks of those periods share no value.

![Figure 3 of the entry iidasspt](https://dictionaryofml.org/terms/fig/iidasspt-fig3.svg)

*Figure 3: Empirical cdfs of the two $15$-day blocks that are furthest apart, for three periods of the Krems an der Donau record. Data generated by pythondemos/iidasspt.py*

For two blocks of $n$ values each, i.i.d. RVs produce a gap above $\sqrt{\ln(2.17/\alpha)/n}$ with probability at most $\alpha$, by the two-sample form of the Dvoretzky–Kiefer–Wolfowitz inequality (Wei and Dudley, 2012, Thm. 1). The constant $2.17$ is what two blocks of equal size $n \geq 4$ require. The value $2$, tight for the one-sample inequality (Massart, 1990, p. 1270), holds in the two-sample case only from $n = 458$ on (Wei and Dudley, 2012, Thm. 1). For $n = 15$ and $\alpha = 0.05$ the threshold is $0.50$, which the January gap of $0.33$ does not reach. A gap below its threshold proves nothing beyond itself: the blocks then carry no evidence against a common probability distribution, while a dependence between consecutive values can still be present. This is why both parts are needed.

A cruder check compares monthly averages: January averages $5.95$ degrees and July $28.99$. Take the common probability distribution to be Gaussian, with its expectation and variance set to the sample mean $17.91$ and the sample variance of the whole year, a standard deviation of $9.21$ degrees. The difference between two monthly averages of $31$ days each then has expectation zero and standard deviation $2.34$ degrees, so the observed gap of $23.03$ degrees lies $9.8$ standard deviations from zero, which that probability distribution produces with probability below $10^{-21}$. Subtracting the seasonal average removes this violation, and the dependence survives it.

**See also:** [independent and identically distributed](https://dictionaryofml.org/terms/iid.html), autocorrelation, Ljung–Box test, probabilistic model, [data point](https://dictionaryofml.org/terms/datapoint.html), [random variable](https://dictionaryofml.org/terms/rv.html), risk, [empirical risk minimization](https://dictionaryofml.org/terms/erm.html), [training set](https://dictionaryofml.org/terms/trainset.html), [validation set](https://dictionaryofml.org/terms/valset.html), [distribution shift](https://dictionaryofml.org/terms/distshift.html), empirical distribution, hypothesis testing, [hypothesis space](https://dictionaryofml.org/terms/hypospace.html), [decision tree](https://dictionaryofml.org/terms/decisiontree.html), realization.

## References

- Shalev-Shwartz and Ben-David (2014). Understanding Machine Learning: From Theory to Algorithms. *Cambridge Univ. Press*. <https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781107298019>
- Murphy (2012). Machine Learning: A Probabilistic Perspective. *MIT Press*.
- Hoeffding (1963). Probability Inequalities for Sums of Bounded Random Variables. *J. Amer. Statistical Assoc.*. <https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1963.10500830>
- Quiñonero-Candela et al. (2009). Dataset Shift in Machine Learning. *MIT Press*.
- Gretton et al. (2012). A Kernel Two-Sample Test. *Journal of Machine Learning Research*. <https://www.jmlr.org/papers/v13/gretton12a.html>
- Wei and Dudley (2012). Two-sample Dvoretzky--Kiefer--Wolfowitz inequalities. *Statist. Probab. Lett.*. <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spl.2011.11.012>
- Massart (1990). The Tight Constant in the Dvoretzky--Kiefer--Wolfowitz Inequality. *Ann. Probab.*.

## Cite this entry

```bibtex
@misc{dictml_iidasspt,
  author = {Jung, Alexander},
  editor = {Olioumtsevits, Konstantina and Schnoor, Ekkehard},
  title = {independent and identically distributed assumption (i.i.d. assumption)},
  howpublished = {Dictionary of Applied Machine Learning (course edition)},
  year = {2026},
  doi = {10.5281/zenodo.21569296},
  note = {ISBN 978-952-64-3013-3, CC BY 4.0, retrieved 2026-11-03},
  url = {https://dictionaryofml.org/terms/iidasspt.html}
}
```